Feed Grains for Beef Cattle

Utilization of Feed Grains for Beef Cattle

Cereals such as barley, corn, wheat and oats are grown across North America for use as human food, for livestock feed and for industrial purposes such as ethanol. From a livestock perspective, cereals are utilized either as whole plant forage (i.e. silage, green feed) or as feed grains.  

Cereal grains are the seeds of grasses (i.e. barley, oat, wheat and corn) which develop as the plant matures over the growing season. During development, the seed fills with starch and associated protein. Increasing the concentration of starch at maturity is the plant’s method of storing energy for germination and early seedling development. While an important aspect of plant growth and reproduction, this concentration of nutrients in the mature seed head is also important for agricultural and industrial purposes.  

The cattle feeding sector relies on cereal grains as concentrated sources of energy, particularly in finishing rations where these grains are included at up to 90% of the ration dry matter. This heavy reliance on cereals as an energy source is due in part to the fact that the cost per unit of dietary energy is typically less for cereal grains than for any other readily available feed source. As well, cereal grains make an important contribution to the protein needs of growing and finishing cattle.  

High nutritional value, competitive pricing and ready supply all combine to make cereal grains attractive feed sources for cattle. However, not all cereal grains are equal, particularly from a nutrition perspective as variations exist in dietary energy as well as crude protein content. Similarly, differences in kernel structure such as the presence or absence of a hull, impact nutrient amounts and availability which influences the need for further processing. 

Canadian Cereal Grain Production, Classification and Uses

Barley Grain

Barley has long been an important crop for Canadian farmers, particularly those in western Canada where the majority (> 95%) of seeded barley acreage is located. Canadian barley production ranged from 8.8 to 10.74 million metric tonnes from 2020 to 2023 with 10.74 million tonnes in 2020¹.

Barley is grown primarily for malt, feed and human food purposes. Although the grain can be grown strictly for cattle feed, it also gets used for this purpose if it fails to mee the criteria for malting or other human food uses.

Barley can be grouped as either two- or six-row with the classification relating to differences in the physical structure of the cereal head. Two-row barley varieties typically produce larger, plumper seeds. Barley varieties are also classified on the presence or absence of a hull. Hulless varieties are used primarily for human food, although when priced appropriately, they can be used as livestock feed. The term hulless is actually a misnomer, as these varieties have a loosely attached hull that falls off during harvesting as opposed to a tightly attached hull present on normal varieties.

Beneath the hull and seed coat of the kernel is the endosperm and germ. The endosperm contains most of the starch, which is embedded with protein. The starch and protein of barley grain is rapidly and extensively degraded in the rumen, particularly for processed barley grain².

Wheat Grain

Similar to barley production, wheat is grown across Canada, with the majority of seeded acreage in western Canada. Over the period 2020 to 2023, Canadian wheat production averaged 31 million tonnes with 35.4 million tonnes in 2020¹. While there are numerous classes of wheat grown across Canada, the most important are the spring and durum classes. In 2023, spring wheat accounted for 77.5% of total Canadian wheat production, durum accounted for 12.75% with the remainder primarily winter wheat classes¹.

As opposed to barley, the vast majority of Canadian wheat production is destined for human consumption. Wheat typically enters the feed market when there are issues with quality, such as fusarium or mildew contamination or issues with sprouting. Due to wheat being less prone to lodging than barley, it can be grown for feed but must be managed carefully. Wheat is easily digested which makes it considered a “hot” feed that can cause acidosis or other issues when cattle are fed too much too quickly. Work by Dr. Tim McAllister and his team in Lethbridge, Alberta, showed that red wheat varieties can be particularly useful in backgrounding diets, where the higher protein can benefit muscle growth. White varieties may be a better fit for finishing diets. These researchers also found that tempering improves kernel processing uniformity and therefore, may help to reduce acidosis issues. However, even a very conservative step-up feeding program to wheat-based finishing diets can pose challenges to both rumen and liver health.

Wheat kernels lack a protective hull; however, they possess a seed coat that provides protection from the environment. Like barley, the endosperm contains most of the starch and protein, both of which are rapidly degraded in the rumen. While wheat can be fed as the sole grain in growing and finishing rations, many nutritionists restrict inclusion levels to 40% (hard wheats) or 30% (durum) of the diet dry matter due to concerns with rumen acidosis and digestive upsets if not managed carefully. Research from NDSU that compared durum with hard red spring wheat indicated that cattle fed durum-based finishing rations consumed less feed, had poorer gains and feed conversions that those fed the hard red spring variety. The poor performance was attributed to durum’s gluten content and its influence on palatability of the processed grain³.

Corn Grain

Traditionally, Canadian corn production was located in central and eastern Canada, primarily in Ontario, Quebec and Manitoba. Of the 15.1 million tonnes produced in 2023, approximately 13 million tonnes were grown in Ontario and Quebec¹. However, with the development of short season corn hybrids, this picture is changing with increased acreage in Saskatchewan and Alberta, particularly of silage varieties.

Corn is a remarkably versatile grain with uses in food, feed and industrial markets. Feed corn is widely used in cattle, swine and poultry rations.

Corn can be classified as dent or flint types. Dent corn is the principle type grown for livestock feed. Dent corn is typically yellow in color. The interior of the kernel is  characterized by an endosperm that is soft and floury on the inside and harder and denser (vitreous) on the outside^{4, 5}. The endosperm contains most of the starch, which in the case of dent varieties is relatively digestible, particularly that found in the inner floury endosperm. The harder vitreous endosperm also contains protein that forms a protective matrix with the densely packed starch granules⁵. A seed coat or pericarp surrounds the endosperm. At maturity, the cap of the dent kernel is dented, hence the classification.

Flint corn has a harder, more vitreous endosperm that consists of tightly packed starch cells with protein. This difference in endosperm morphology leads to reduced starch and protein digestibility when compared to dent varieties.

With corn varieties becoming available for different climates, corn grazing is becoming a more common practice. Read this blog post on 7 tips for grazing corn for more information.

Oat Grain

Oat production in Canada ranged from 2.6 to 4.5 million tonnes over the period from 2020 to 2023. Oat grain is used primarily for livestock feed and human food. Oat varieties grown in Canada include those selected for general purpose, milling, and feed purposes. Similar to barley, most of these varieties possess an outer hull that comprises 25% of the kernel weight and contributes to the lower test weight of oat relative to other cereal grains. The endosperm and germ contain the majority of the starch, protein and oil content of the kernel. Similar to that from barley and wheat, exposed starch is rapidly and extensively degraded in the rumen of cattle.

Nutritive Value of Barley, Corn, Oats and Wheat Grain for Beef Cattle

Feed grains are characterized nutritionally as excellent sources of energy and intermediate sources of protein and individual minerals such phosphorus and magnesium. Differences in nutrient value between grain types, to a large degree reflect differences in kernel structure as discussed above.

Relative Value of Barley, Corn, oats and Wheat as Energy Sources for Beef Cattle

In terms of energy density, cereal grains typically follow the order corn > wheat > barley > oat. This is evident from Table 1 which shows that oat grain has a total digestible nutrient (TDN) content of 77%, barley 84%, wheat 87% and corn 88% (DM basis). The energy differences are due to the variation in fibre and starch content of the grains. This will also influence the nature and degree of processing required to optimize feeding value.

Table 1. Dry matter, fibre, starch and fat content and energy values of common cereal grains used in beef cattle rations

^{Adapted from: Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle 8th edition}

Relative Value of Barley, Corn, Oats and Wheat as Protein Sources for Beef Cattle

Table 2: Crude protein content of common cereal grains

^{Adapted from: Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle 8th edition}

Mineral Content of Barley, Wheat, Oats and Corn

With respect to the macro minerals, all cereal grains are low in calcium (Table 3), particularly in relation to the calcium requirement of growing and finishing cattle, which can range from 0.45 to 0.75% of the ration dry matter⁶. As a result, calcium supplementation is required in almost all grain-feeding situations. This is particularly true in finishing programs where cereal grains make up a high percentage of the ration dry matter. In contrast, cereal grains are relatively good sources of phosphorus and intermediate sources of magnesium, sulfur and potassium.

Table 3: Mineral content of common cereal grains used in beef cattle rations

^{Adapted from: Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle 8th edition}

Processing Requirements and Methods for Cereal Grains Fed to Beef Cattle

While nutrient content is important, the actual nutritive value of cereal grains is dependent on how easily rumen bacteria can gain access to the interior of the kernel. The seed coat, which acts as a protective layer, hinders digestibility and dictates the extent of processing required. However, over-processing can rapidly increase starch degradation in the rumen, enhancing the risk of rumen fermentation disorders such as acidosis.

The goal of any method of grain processing is to break open the outer hull and/or seed coat in order to expose the interior of the kernel to bacterial fermentation. However, optimal processing is not always easy to achieve. If grain is under-processed, digestibility is less than optimal, while over-processed grain can have an excess of fines or very small grain particles that can lead to digestive upsets and issues with cattle going off feed.

Grinding

Grinding cereals involves the use of a hammermill with a rotating series of hammers that physically grinds grain kernels until they reach a particle size that allows them to pass through a screen. Particle size is controlled by the openings on the screen and the speed of the hammers¹². Hammermills do an excellent job of processing and minimizing the proportion of whole kernels. The resulting highly processed grain, particularly that from barley and wheat, is rapidly fermented in the rumen and can lead to digestive upsets and issues with cattle going off feed. To minimize the level of fines, appropriately sized screens must be used during the grinding process.

Dry-rolling

Dry rolling is the most common method of processing oat, barley and wheat kernels in Canada and is also used with corn. Cattle can perform very effectively when fed dry-rolled grain.

Processing dry grain with a roller mill involves passing whole kernels through two rotating horizontal steel rolls. The intent is to crack or break the kernel into two or three pieces without having too high a level of fines. In most rollers, one roll is stationary, while the other is movable. This allows operators to vary the width of the gap between the two rolls and control particle size of the processed grain. The narrower the gap, the more extensive the processing.

Steam Flaking

Steam-flaking involves holding grain that has been soaked with moisture (tempered) in a steam chamber at atmospheric pressure and subjecting it to steam for a predetermined time and temperature. The combination of steam, temperature and holding time causes the starch granules to absorb moisture and irreversibly swell, a process known as gelatinization, which results in an increase in starch digestibility^{4, 5}.

Steam rolling is a less intense form of steam processing. Grain is subject to a shorter residence time in the steam chest and rolled to a coarser, less dense flake⁴. The rolling process both compresses and shears the grain, which further disrupts the protein matrix of the endosperm, enhancing starch digestibility⁵. Rolls are set to control both the density and thickness of the flaked grain. Typically, the lower the density and/or thinner the flake, the greater the impact on starch digestibility.

Steam flaking has primarily been used to process corn grain to improve net energy values. Given the less digestible nature of starch within the corn kernel, this type of processing will increase corn net energy values compared to either dry-rolled or whole corn (Table 4). This increase in net energy is responsible for the improved performance of cattle fed steam-flaked corn relative to those fed whole or dry-rolled corn¹⁰.

Table 4: Processing effects on relative energy value of corn grain for beef cattle

^{Adapted from: Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle 8th revised edition (2016)}

^{WC = whole corn, DR = dry-rolled; HM = high moisture; SF = steam flaked}

Due to the starch and protein content in processed barley and wheat kernels already being rapidly degraded in the rumen, responses to steam-flaking have been varied.

Recent research at the University of Saskatchewan has shown improvements in starch availability as reflected by reduced fecal starch levels as well as improved feed efficiency of cattle fed steam-flaked barley¹⁷. This research along with the potential for increased corn grain feeding, particularly in western Canada may result in an increase in the use of steam flaking technology to process grain for feedlot cattle.   

High Moisture Grains

There are two common methods of feeding high moisture grains, including tempering or harvesting the grain at an elevated moisture level.

Tempering grain involves adding water to dry grain (at 12 to 14% moisture) to raise the moisture level to 18 to 20%. The wet grain is then held for a 12-to-24 hour period and rolled prior to feeding. Benefits include a reduction in fines and a more even roll. Performance benefits are variable and depend to some extend on grain type. With corn, tempering improved cattle performance over dry-rolled corn¹⁸, while little benefit was observed when tempered barley was fed to finishing bulls¹⁹. Recent research showed that barley grain can be partially substituted with short-season, high-moisture shelled corn for beef cattle fed finishing diets with minimal impact on nutrient digestibility or fermentation²⁵.

High moisture grain (i.e. corn or barley) is harvested at a moisture content of 25 to 30%. Following harvest, the high moisture grain is processed through a roller mill and then ensiled in bunkers or bags. As with silage production, efficient packing to eliminate oxygen is critical for efficient fermentation²⁰. Harvesting high moisture grain offers a variety of agronomic benefits to growers including reduced field losses, higher yields, increased harvest flexibility and no requirement for drying.

As with steam flaking, harvesting corn at 28 to 30% moisture has an impact on the nature and digestibility of the corn kernel. The starch content of high moisture corn is degraded faster and more extensively than that of dry-rolled corn⁴. As result, the net energy value of high moisture corn is similar to that of steam-flaked corn (Table 4).

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Grain Processing Programs

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the grain processing program is a critical aspect of any feeding program. The goal is to ensure that the grain is processed appropriately to ensure maximum feed value. The following are critical control points one can utilize to monitor the effectiveness of the grain-processing program.

Level of Fines

Fines are a particular concern when dry-rolling cereals. They represent over processed grain particles, a result of to narrow a gap between rolls or from processing very dry grain. The level of fines in dry-rolled grain can be evaluated by sieving a defined amount of processed grain (i.e. ½-litre cup) through a screen with specific sized openings (i.e. 1.0 to 1.4 mm) ¹⁹.

The ideal target level of fines in a sample of processed grain will vary from feedlot to feedlot depending on the aggressiveness of the grain milling operation. Commonly, a target of 5 to 7% fines with dry-rolled barley and 5% with wheat are necessary to ensure adequate processing. In addition to evaluating the level of fines, it is possible to evaluate the percentage of whole kernels coming through the roller. Ideally these are kept to a minimum (i.e. 5% or less), although variation in particle size can make this a difficult target to achieve¹⁹.

Processing Index (PI)

Flake Density

For steam flaked grain, the most common indicator used to evaluate the effectiveness of the flaking process is the density of the flakes. Research has shown that within limits, starch digestibility is negatively related to the density of the flakes. With corn, densities between 0.35 and 0.30 kg/L are common⁵. Limited research with barley suggests that a value close to 0.40 kg/L will optimize net energy content relative to dry rolled barley^{15, 17}. The ideal method to optimize flake density is to measure fecal starch content of cattle fed flaked grain where the density is known. The goal is to identify the flake density that minimizes fecal starch content and then use it as a reference to monitor the effectiveness of the roller. Flake thickness can also be used as a monitoring tool. Generally, the thinner the flake, the greater the improvement in starch digestibility⁵.

Manure Content, Colour and Consistency

In addition to evaluating the processed grain coming through your roller mill, it is also is recommended to evaluate the nature and consistency of the manure excreted by cattle. The first thing to look for is the amount of whole grain in the manure. With dry-rolled grain, particularly barley, it would be a rare situation to find manure devoid of any whole kernels. However, with practice you can walk pens and evaluate the relative degree of whole grain in the manure. In cases where the number of whole kernels seem higher than normal, appropriate adjustments can be made to the roller. A more objective method is to have your nutritionist take samples for starch analysis. Fecal starch levels can range from less than 5% in cattle fed steam-flaked corn to greater than 20% in poorly rolled barley.

It is also important to visually monitor the consistency and color of the manure. Both traits reflect the nature of the diet fed to the cattle and can provide insights to cattle health as well as to the effectiveness of the feeding program. For example, blood in manure can indicate issues with mycotoxins, coccidiosis or hemorrhaging in the lower gut²³. Cattle grazing fresh pasture will have manure that is dark green in color. Feces are generally loose due to high moisture content of the grass. Manure from cattle adapted to high grain diets is more of an olive-green to brown color and has a consistency that allows for a typical dome-shaped “pie”²³. Feedlot cattle that experience digestive upsets such as sub-acute acidosis can exhibit a loose, fluid-like manure that flows over the pen surface with a color that can range from very dark to greyish.

Digestive Characteristics of Starch from Barley, Wheat and Corn

Figure 1 illustrates the relative rates of ruminal starch degradability for cereal grains processed to varying degrees. Lowest rates are seen with whole grains such as barley, wheat and corn, while the fastest degradation rates are seen with processed barley and wheat, regardless of processing method. With corn the rate of ruminal starch degradation increases with processing, as you move from whole corn to dry-rolled corn to steam-flaked corn to high moisture corn²².

The impact of processing cereals has two major effects. First, maximizing starch digestion is what processing is all about. The goal should be to achieve 95% or better starch utilization by the animal. However, cattle feeders need to exercise caution when feeding highly processed grain sources as rapid ruminal fermentation of starch can lead to excess acid production. This acid load stresses the ability of the animal to maintain a normal rumen pH and can lead to issues with rumen acidosis.

In practice, acidosis can be classified as acute, sub-acute and chronic forms of the disease. Symptoms generally reflect the severity and duration of the ruminal acid stress. In all cases, feeding management is at the heart of the issue.

• Acute acidosis, typically occurs with cattle that are naive to grain feeding (i.e. newly weaned calves) which are fed the wrong ration by mistake, usually the finishing ration. These animals cannot handle the resulting rumen acid load, become dehydrated, appear listless and go off feed. In severe cases, death occurs 24 to 48 hours after over-consumption of the grain.

Managing Beef Cattle on High Grain Rations

Issues with acidosis whether acute or chronic are typically associated with poor feeding management. At the heart of the issue, is that in order to maintain normal rumen and digestive function, cattle and more specifically the rumen bacterial population requires adaptation to high-concentrate feeding. Grain adaptation is essentially the process of shifting the rumen bacterial population from one specializing in fermenting forages to one that specializes in fermenting grain. This shift needs to occur gradually and in steps, the number of which will depend on the nature of the feeding program.

Step-up Feeding Programs

While there are a range of feeding programs used to adapt cattle to high grain rations, most feedlots utilize a version of a step-up feeding program. These programs consist of a series of rations formulated to increase in energy density (i.e. grain level) as you move from one ration to another. Depending on the program, there can be up to five to eight rations that range from the starter through to the final finishing ration.

The starter ration is typically comprised of 30 to 40% concentrate (i.e. cereal grains), 55 to 65% forage and 3 to 5% supplement (dry matter (DM) basis). As you move from the starter ration, the ratio of concentrate to forage changes at each step such that the amount of concentrate increases by approximately 10% and the level of forage deceases by 10% (DM basis). If we look at the finishing ration, in most cases it will range from 80 to 90% grain, 7 to 15% forage and 3 to 5% supplement. Between the starter and finisher, there can be five to six steps, sequentially increasing in grain concentration. In the case of a backgrounding operation, the feeding program typically consists of the starter ration and anywhere from two to four rations that again increase in energy content by varying the grain to forage ratio.

Feed Bunk Management

Feed bunk management is the practice of ensuring that cattle are fed to meet performance expectations. Specific goals of feed bunk management include:

• feeding the correct ration
• ensuring that cattle are fed the right amount of feed
• taking steps to ensure that cattle remain healthy when fed high grain rations for extended periods.

Feeding the correct ration is a function of identifying performance expectations for the cattle being fed and providing a well-mixed ration that meets nutrient requirements for that class of cattle. Using a step-up feeding program with defined energy and protein concentrations at each step of the program will help facilitate feeding the correct ration, particularly when one is feeding a variety of pens that differ in frame, weight and performance expectations. A well-mixed ration includes accurate weighing of ingredients as specified by batch sheets or by the truck computer; following a specified order of ingredient inclusion where small volume ingredients are added towards the end of the load; and allowing for adequate mixing time.

Ensuring that the correct amount of feed is provided daily to each pen is perhaps the most difficult task associated with feeding management. Most feedlots keep cattle on full feed within defined limits. In other words, cattle are eating very close to appetite. With such a strategy, one will typically see the bunks empty for a defined period (i.e. two to four hours) over the course of a 24-hour period. Feeding in such a manner prevents cattle from over-eating, particularly on high grain rations.

Keeping cattle on high grain rations for extended periods without getting into issues with chronic acidosis is another challenge. Critical to success is the role of the ‘bunk reader’ whose job it is to determine how much feed is allotted per pen, when and how much to increase and when to change to higher grain rations. When increasing the amount fed, it is wise to provide defined increases over a specified number of days. Larger increases are provided early in the step-up program with more restricted increases at later stages. The goal is to minimize large day-to-day swings in feed intake.

In the case of transitioning to higher grain rations, moving cattle up a step-up program is the ideal method to follow. At each step of the program, give 3 to 4 days of feeding to allow the cattle to adjust to the higher level of grain. As well, when changing rations, avoid moving to a higher ration on the same day you increase the amount fed and transition to the higher grain ration during the afternoon feeding, if possible.

Other measures to ensure that cattle maintain relatively high levels of feed intake while on high grain rations include:

• multiple daily feedings
• consistent feeding times
• providing an initial cover of feed to cattle with slick bunks, particularly those on the finishing ration to minimize issues with over-eating
• recognizing and adjusting to weather induced changes in feeding behavior and
• distributing feed evenly over the entire bunk.

As well, ionophores can be fed to help minimize day-to-day variation in feed intake and to help control digestive disorders.

Purchasing Grain for the Feedlot

Many variables influence the relative nutritive value of different feed grains. In addition to differences between grain types there are also a number of factors that influence feeding value of any given grain type. The following are important considerations that feedlots use to assess economic value.

Moisture content: Feed grains are typically purchased at a moisture content of 14.5% or less. Higher moisture levels can lead to heating and mold growth, as well as potential bridging issues during storage. Grain with higher moisture levels (i.e. 15 to 17%) can be utilized, particularly during the winter if it is stored outside and used relatively quickly. When purchasing grain with higher moisture levels, it is important to adjust the purchase price based on the actual dry matter content of the grain.

Test weight or bushel weight: The most common measurement used for purchasing grain is test weight or bushel weight.

Plumpness: This trait reflects grain uniformity and is positively associated with starch content of the kernel. Barley plumpness can be measured by using a set of # 6 (6/64 inch) and # 5 (5/64 inch) slotted screens to sieve the grain. Kernels remaining on top of the # 6 screen are classified as plump; those falling through to the #5 screen are classified as thin, with material falling to the pan classified as waste (i.e. dust, small weed seeds). Plumpness values of more than 90% are desired from both a feed value and processing perspective.

Mycotoxins: When purchasing cereal grains, it is a good idea to have a screening program for potential mycotoxin contamination. Cereal grains as well as associated by-products such as dry distillers’ grains or grain screenings are potential sources of mycotoxins that can cause serious health issues if consumed by cattle. Mycotoxins are by-products of various species of fungus that develop on the plant during the growing season and in some cases on the grain during storage. The extent of contamination varies with grain type and with specific environmental factors that affect plant growth, particularly during the spring. Mycotoxins of concern result from ergot and fusarium contamination of cereals and aflatoxin contamination of stored corn grain. For a detailed discussion on the effects of mycotoxins on cattle visit the BCRC Mycotoxin topic page.

Conclusion

Cereal grains are used extensively by the Canadian beef industry, primarily as sources of energy. In terms of ranking, corn and wheat are superior energy sources for cattle, followed by barley and oat grain, respectively. Differences in energy content reflect differences in starch content and kernel structure, particularly the presence or absence of an outer hull. Oat grain can be successfully fed whole to growing cattle due to superior chewing ability relative to mature cattle. Barley and wheat require processing to optimize digestibility of starch and other nutrients with dry rolling the method of choice. Corn grain may be fed whole, dry-rolled or steam flaked or as high moisture grain with performance optimized with steam flaked and high moisture grain. With all cereals, rapid rumen fermentation of starch can predispose cattle to issues with rumen acidosis, making feed and bunk management critical components of the overall management program. 

References

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³Lardy and J. Dhuyvetter. 2016. Feeding wheat to beef cattle. NDSU Extension Service Publication AS1184 (Revised).

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¹⁹Mathison, G.W., G.F. Engstrom, R. Soofi-Siawash and d. Gibb. 1997. Effects of tempering and degree of processing of barley grain on performance of bulls in the feedlot. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 77:421-429.

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²¹Beauchemin, K.A., W.Z. Wang and L.M. Rode. 2001. Effects of barley grain processing on site and extent of digestion of beef feedlot finishing diets. J. Anim. Sci. 79:1925-1936.

²²Stock, R. and R. Britton, 1993. Acidosis. G91-1047. NebGuide, Published by Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

²³Hendricks, J.A., G.A. Varga, P. Konoff. 2016. Using manure to enhance dairy cattle nutrition. PennState Extension, The Pennsylvania State University. https://extension.psu.edu/using-manure-evaluation-to-enhance-dairy-cattle-nutrition.

²⁴North Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station, North Dakota State University. 2017. Barley grain and forage for cattle. Publication AS 1609 (revised).

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